Analysis of the Pile Load Test Program at the Lock and Dam 26 Replacement Project

Jean-Louis Briaud
Larry M. Tucker
Texas A&M University

U.S. Army Corps of Engineers
Miscellaneous Paper GL-88-11
June 1988

Prior to performing twenty-eight axial and two lateral load tests on piles at the Mississippi River Lock and Dam 26 project in Alton, IL, an in situ test program was conducted. The program consisted of four cone pentration tests , twelve pressuremeter test borings, and four standard penetration test borings. Comparisons of pile capacity predictions were made for each of the in situ test methods. The initial study generated four reports and voluminous test data.

Background Theory and Documentation of Five University of Texas Soil-Structure Interaction Computer Programs

N. Radhakrishnan and Frazier Parker, Jr

U.S. Army Corps of Engineers
Miscellaneous Paper K-75-2
May 1975

The primary purpose of this report is to document four pile analysis-related finite difference computer programs (COM62, PX4C3, MAKE, and BENTI1) and a structural analysis program (BMCOL51), developed at the University of Texas, Austin, Texas, under the guidance of Professors L. C. Reese and H. Matlock. Basic theory to explain the methods used in the computer programs is also included in the report.

• COM62 solves laterally loaded pile problems using an iterative scheme that considers nonlinear soil resistance versus pile movement curves.
• PX4C3 is a computer program written for the analysis of an axially loaded pile accounting for nonlinear soil properties.
• MAKE is a program that generates lateral soil resistance-pile movement curves from laboratory soil testing data based on predefined criteria.
• BENT1 analyzes group pile problems, again accounting for nonlinear soil behavior under both axial and lateral loads.
• BMCOL51 is a computer program based on the discrete element theory. Some of the uses of BMCOL51 can be in obtaining general solutions for linear beam-colwnns, moving load problems, beam on elastic foundation problems, variable beam-size problems, and buckling problems.

Each of the five computer programs has been documented with a general introduction, flow charts, guide for data input, and example problems with input-output data.

Behavior of Fiber-Reinforced Polymer (FRP) Composite Piles Under Vertical Loads

FHWA-HRT-04-107
August 2006

Composite piles have been used primarily for fender piles, waterfront barriers, and bearing piles for light structures. In 1998, the Empire State Development Corporation (ESDC) undertook a waterfront rehabilitation project known as Hudson River Park. The project is expected to involve replacing up to 100,000 bearing piles for lightweight structures. The corrosion of steel, deterioration of concrete, and vulnerability of timber piles has led ESDC to consider composite materials, such as fiber-reinforced polymers (FRP), as a replacement for piling made of timber, concrete, or steel. Concurrently, the Federal Highway Administration (FHWA) initiated a research project on the use of FRP composite piles as vertical load-bearing piles.

A full-scale experiment, including dynamic and static load tests (SLT) on FRP piles was conducted at a site provided by the Port Authority of New York and New Jersey (PANY&NJ) at its Port of Elizabeth facility in New Jersey, with the cooperation and support of its engineering department and the New York State Department of Transportation (NYSDOT). The engineering use of FRP-bearing piles required field performance assessment and development and evaluation of reliable testing procedures and design methods to assess short-term composite material properties, load-settlement response and axial-bearing capacity, drivability and constructability of composite piling, soil-pile interaction and load transfer along the installed piling, and creep behavior of FRP composite piles under vertical loads. This project includes:

• Development and experimental evaluation of an engineering analysis approach to establish the equivalent mechanical properties of the composite material. The properties include elastic modulus for the initial loading quasilinear phase, axial compression strength, inertia moment, and critical buckling load. The composite material used in this study consisted of recycled plastic reinforced by fiberglass rebar (SEAPILETM composite marine piles), recycled plastic reinforced by steel bars, and recycled plastic reinforced with randomly distributed fiberglass (Trimax), manufactured respectively by Seaward International Inc., Plastic Piling, Inc., and U.S. Plastic Lumber.
• Static load tests on instrumented FRP piles. The instrumentation schemes were specifically designed for strain measurements. The experimental results were compared with current design codes as well as with the methods commonly used for evaluating the ultimate capacity, end bearing capacity, and shaft frictional resistance along the piles. As a result, preliminary recommendations for the design of FRP piles are proposed.
• Analysis of Pile Driving Analyzer® (PDA) and Pile Integrity Tester (PIT) test results using the Case Pile Wave Analysis Program (CAPWAP)(1) and the GRL Wave Equation Analysis of Piles program GRLWEAP(2) to establish the dynamic properties of the FRP piles. The PDA also was used to evaluate the feasibility of installing FRP piles using standard pile driving equipment. Pile bearing capacities were assessed using the CAPWAP program with the dynamic data measured by the PDA, and the calculated pile capacities were compared to the results of static load tests performed on the four FRP piles.

The dynamic and static loading test on instrumented FRP piles conducted in this project demonstrated that these piles can be used as an alternative engineering solution for deep foundations. The engineering analysis of the laboratory and field test results provided initial data basis for evaluating testing methods to establish the dynamic properties of FRP piles and evaluating their integrity and drivability. Design criteria for allowable compression and tension stresses in the FRP piles were developed considering the equation of the axial force equilibrium for the composite material and assuming no delamination between its basic components. However, the widespread engineering use of FRP piles will require further site testing and full-scale experiment to establish a relevant performance database for the development and evaluation of reliable testing procedure and design methods.

Design and Construction of Driven Pile Foundations
(pdf format)

Notes:

• In addition to this manual, we have a wide variety of articles on pile driving and the wave equation. Click here to view them.
• This FHWA monograph has information on every driven pile related program we offer except for Microwave and LLP97. These can be found by clicking here. They include WEAP87, COM624P, SPILE and DRIVEN.
• For quick reference, we also have the FHWA's Pile Driving Guildelines

Federal Highway Administration
FHWA HI 97-103
Revised November 1998

Engineers and contractors have been designing and installing pile foundations for many years. During the past three decades this industry has experienced several major improvements including newer and more accurate methods of predicting capacities, highly specialized and sophisticated equipment for pile driving, and improved methods of construction control.

In order to take advantage of these new developments, the FHWA developed a manual in connection with Demonstration Project No. 66, Design and Construction of Driven Pile Foundations. The primary purpose of the Manual was to support educational programs conducted by FHWA for transportation agencies. These programs consisted of (1) a workshop for geotechnical, structural, and construction engineers, and (2) field demonstrations of static and dynamic load testing equipment. Technical assistance on construction projects in areas cove ed by this Demonstration Project was provided to transportation agencies on request A second purpose of equal importance was to serve as the FHWA's standard reference for highway projects involving driven pile foundations.

The original Manual was written by Suneel N. Vanikar with review and comment from Messrs. Ronald Chassie, Jerry DiMaggio, and Richard Cheney. After a decade of use it was necessary that the Manual be updated and modified to include new developments that have taken place in the intervening years and to take advantage of the experience gained in using the Manual in the many workshops that were presented by Demonstration Project 66. Goble Rausche Likins and Associates, Inc. prepared the new version of the Manual under contract with the FHWA.

The Manual is presented in two volumes, both of which are in one file. You can download these by clicking on the link to the left.

• Volume I addresses design aspects.
  • Economics of Structural Foundations
  • Overview of Pile Foundation Design and Construction
  • Subsurface Explorations
  • In-Situ Testing
  • Laboratory Testing
  • Foundation Design Procedure
  • Pile Types and Guidelines for Selection
  • Static Analysis Methods
  • Overview of Dynamic Analysis Methods
  • Allowable Pile Stresses
  • Contract Documents
  • Pile Foundation Design Summary
  • Foundation Report Preparation
  • Dimensions and Properties of Pipe Piles
  • Data for Steel Monotube Piles
  • Typical Prestressed Concrete Pile Sections
  • Dimensions and Properties of H-Piles
  • Sample Specification for Bitumen Coating on Concrete Piles
  • Sample Specification for Bitumen Coating on Steel Piles
• Volume II presents topics related to driven pile installation, monitoring, and inspection.
  • Introduction to Construction Monitoring
  • Dynamic Formulas for Static Capacity Determination
  • Dynamic Analysis by Wave Equation
  • Dynamic Pile Testing And Analysis
  • Static Pile Load Testing
  • The Osterberg Cell Method
  • The Statnamic Method
  • Pile Driving Equipment
  • Accessories for Pile Installation
  • Inspection of Pile Installation
  • FHWA Pile Foundation Design and Construction References (list)
  • ASTM Pile Design and Testing Specifications (list)
  • Information and Data on Various Pile Types
  • Pile Hammer Information
  • Solutions to Student Exercises

The new Manual is intended to serve a dual purpose. First, as a workshop participant's manual for the FHWA's National Highway Institute Courses on Driven Pile Foundations. Similar to the earlier demonstration manual, this document is also intended to serve as FHWA's primary reference of recommended practice for driven pile foundations.

Upon completion of the courses contained in these books, participants should be able to:

1. Describe methods of pile foundation design.
2. Discuss driven pile construction materials and installation equipment.
3. Describe the timing and scope of the involvement of foundation specialists as a project evolves from concept through completion.
4. Perform a foundation economic analysis and determine the need for a driven pile foundation.
5. Recognize the pile type selection process and the advantages and disadvantages of common driven pile types.
6. Compute single and group capacities of driven piles to resist compression, tension and lateral loads.
7. Identify when and how dynamic formulas, wave equation analyses, dynamic pile testing and static load testing should be used on a project.
8. Discuss the components of structural foundation reports and controlling issues of specifications and contracting documents as related to a successful construction project.
9. Describe the concept and project influence of driveability, pile refusal, minimum and estimated pile toe elevations, soil setup and relaxation.
10. Describe methods of driven pile construction monitoring and inspection practices and procedures.
11. Discuss pertinent driven pile specification and contract document issues.
12. Describe wave equation, dynamic testing and static testing results in terms of their application and interpretation on construction projects.
13. Identify the basic components and differences between various pile driving systems, associated installation equipment, pile splices and pile toe attachments.
14. Interpret a set of driven pile plan details and specifications.
15. Inspect a drive pile project with knowledge and confidence.

Design and Construction of Driven Pile Foundations — Lessons Learned on the Central Artery/Tunnel Project

FHWA-HRT-05-159
June 2006

Five contracts from the Central Artery/Tunnel (CA/T) project in Boston, MA, were reviewed to document issues related to design and construction of driven pile foundations. Given the soft and compressible marine clays in the Boston area, driven pile foundations were selected to support specific structures, including retaining walls, abutments, roadway slabs, transition structures, and ramps. This report presents the results of a study to assess the lessons learned from pile driving on the CA/T. This study focused on an evaluation of static and dynamic load test data and a case study of significant movement of an adjacent building during pile driving. The load test results showed that the piles have more capacity than what they were designed for. At the site of significant movement of an adjacent building, installation of wick drains and preaugering to mitigate additional movement proved to be ineffective. Detailed settlement, inclinometer, and piezometer data are presented.

Design Criteria for Driven Piles in Permafrost

Dennis Nottingham
Alan B. Christopherson
Peratrovich, Nottingham & Drage, Inc.
January 1983

Past placement of structural foundation support piles in frozen soils generally has been performed using drilled and slurry backfill techniques. The early success of specially modified H-pile structural shapes driven into permafrost, and the promise of more economical and faster methods of pipe pile placement, has fostered development of refined pile driving techniques on the North Slope of Alaska. The proposed criteria presented in this paper are primarily addressed to the practicing design engineer, including design and construction considerations for driven piles in permafrost. A s more research and experience accumulate, factors in this report may change. The reader is cautioned to use the findings in this paper with discretion, and only after thorough confirmation of actual site conditions.

Design of Pile Foundations

EM 1110-2-2906
15 January 1991

This manual provides information, foundation exploration and testing procedures, load test methods, analysis techniques, allowable criteria, design procedures, and construction consideration for the selection, design, and installation of pile foundations. The guidance is based on the present state of the technology for pile-soil-structure-foundation interaction behavior. This manual provides design guidance intended specifically for the geotechnical and structural engineer but also provides essential information for others interested in pile foundations such as the construction engineer in understanding construction techniques related to pile behavior during installation. Since the understanding of the physical causes of pile foundation behavior is actively expanding by better definition through ongoing research, prototype, model pile, and pile group testing and development of more refined analytical models, this manual is intended to provide examples and procedures of what has been proven successful. This is not the last nor final word on the state of the art for this technology. We expect, as further practical design and installation procedures are developed from the expansion of this technology, that these updates will be issued as changes to this manual.

Investigation of the Resistance of Pile Caps to Lateral Loading

Robert L. Mokwa
Virginia Polytechnic Institute
September 1999

Bridges and buildings are often supported on deep foundations. These foundations consist of groups of piles coupled together by concrete pile caps. These pile caps, which are often massive and deeply buried, would be expected to provide significant resistance to lateral loads. However, practical procedures for computing the resistance of pile caps to lateral loads have not been developed, and, for this reason, cap resistance is usually ignored. Neglecting cap resistance results in estimates of pile group deflections and bending moments under load that may exceed the actual deflections and bending moments by 100 % or more.

Advances could be realized in the design of economical pile-supported foundations, and their behavior more accurately predicted, if the cap resistance can be accurately assessed. This research provides a means of assessing and quantifying many important aspects of pile group and pile cap behavior under lateral loads.

The program of work performed in this study includes developing a full-scale field test facility, conducting approximately 30 lateral load tests on pile groups and pile caps, performing laboratory geotechnical tests on natural soils obtained from the site and on imported backfill iii materials, and performing analytical studies. A detailed literature review was also conducted to assess the current state of practice in the area of laterally loaded pile groups.

A method called the “group-equivalent pile” approach (abbreviated GEP) was developed for creating analytical models of pile groups and pile caps that are compatible with established approaches for analyzing single laterally loaded piles. A method for calculating pile cap resistance-deflection curves (p-y curves) was developed during this study, and has been programmed in the spreadsheet called PYCAP. A practical, rational, and systematic procedure was developed for assessing and quantifying the lateral resistance that pile caps provide to pile groups.

Comparisons between measured and calculated load-deflection responses indicate that the analytical approach developed in this study is conservative, reasonably accurate, and suitable for use in design. The results of this research are expected to improve the current state of knowledge and practice regarding pile group and pile cap behavior.

A Laboratory and Field Study of Composite Piles for Bridge Substructures

Miguel A. Pando, Carl D. Ealy, George M. Filz, J.J. Lesko, and E.J. Hoppe

FHWA-HRT-04-043
March 2006

The most commonly used pile materials are steel, concrete, and wood. These materials can degrade, and the degradation rate can be relatively rapid in harsh marine environments. It has been estimated that the U.S. spends over $1 billion annually for repair and replacement of waterfront piling systems. This high cost has spurred interest in alternative composite pile materials such as fiber-reinforced polymers (FRPs), recycled plastics, and hybrid materials. Because only minimal performance data have been collected for composite piles, a research project was undertaken to investigate (1) soil-pile interface behavior of composite piles, (2) the long-term durability of concrete-filled FRP shell composite piles, and (3) the driveability and axial and lateral load response of concrete-filled FRP composite piles and steel-reinforced recycled plastic piles by means of field tests and analyses. In addition, a long-term monitoring program was implemented at a bridge over the Hampton River in Virginia.

According to laboratory rest results, values of residual interface friction angle between three pile surfaces and a subrounded to rounded sand were 27, 25, and 28 degrees for a FRP composite pile, the recycled plastic pile, and the prestressed concrete pile respectively, while the values of residual interface friction angle between these piles and a subangular to angular sand were 29, 29, and 28 degrees for the FRP composite pile, the recycled plastic pile, and the prestressed concrete pile, respectively. Regarding durability of FRP composite piles, it was found that moisture absorption caused degradation of strength and stiffness of the FRP shells, but that freeze-thaw cycles had little effect. Analyses indicate that FRP degradation due to moisture absorption should have minimal impact on axial capacity of the FRP composite piles because most of the axial capacity is provided by the concrete infill; however, FRP degradation has a larger effect on lateral capacity because the FRP shell provides the capacity on the tension side of the pile. The field tests demonstrated that there were not major differences in driveability of the FRP composite pile, the recycled pile, and the prestressed concrete pile. In static load tests, the FRP composite pile and prestressed concrete pile exhibited similar axial and lateral stiffness, and the plastic pile was significantly less stiff. Conventional static analyses of axial load capacity, axial load versus settlement, and lateral load versus deflection provided reasonable predictions for the composite piles, at least to the levels of accuracy that can be achieved for more common pile materials. The long-term monitoring program has been implemented for an FRP composite pile and a prestressed concrete pile so that their load-transfer performance can be compared over time. The long-term monitoring is being done by Virginia DOT.

Load and Resistance Factor Design (LRFD) for Deep Foundations
(pdf format)

(Note: for an opposing view to this, click here.)

NCHRP Report 507
2004

NCHRP Project 24-17 was aimed at rewriting AASHTO’s Deep Foundation Specifications. The AASHTO specifications are traditionally observed on all federally aided projects and generally viewed as a national code of U.S. highway practice; hence they influence the construction of all the deep foundations of highway bridges throughout the United States. This report presents the results of the studies and analyses conducted for that project.

The development of load and resistance factors for deep foundations design is presented. The existing AASHTO specifications, similar to others worldwide, are based on Load and Resistance Factor Design (LRFD) principles. The presented research is the first, however, to use reliability-based calibration-utilizing databases. Large databases containing case histories of piles tested to failure were compiled and analyzed. The state of the art was examined via a literature review of design methodologies, LRFD principles, and deep foundation codes. The state of the practice was established via a questionnaire, distributed to and gathered from state and federal transportation officials. Large databases were gathered and provided. Analyses of the data, guided by the state of practice led to findings detailing the performance of various static and dynamic analyses methods when compared to recorded pile performance.

Static capacity evaluation methods used in common design practices were found overall to over-predict the observed pile capacities. Common dynamic capacity evaluation methods used for quality control were found overall to under-predict the observed pile capacities. Both findings demonstrate the shortcoming of safety parameter evaluation based on absolute values (i.e., resistance factors or factors of safety) and the need for an efficiency parameter to allow for an objective measure to assess the performance of methods of analysis. The parameters that control the accuracy of the predictions were researched and analyzed for the dynamic methods. A set of controlling parameters was established to allow calibration of the prediction methods. Target reliability magnitudes were researched and values were recommended considering the action of piles in a redundant or non-redundant form. Statistical analyses compatible with common practice in the structural area were utilized for the development of LRFD resistance factors. Parameters that control the size of a testing sample and site variability were researched and incorporated. Recommended design parameters offering a consistent reliability in design were then presented and discussed.

The need for the modification of LRFD for use in geotechnical applications through knowledge-based parameters accounting for subsurface variability, quality of soil parameters estimation, and previous experience as well as amount and type of testing during construction is presented.

Modeling Embankment Induced Lateral Loads on Deep Foundations

(Slide Show Technical Presentation)

Dr. Siva Kesavan, URS Corporation
Professor Rajah Anandarajah, Johns Hopkins University

The problem analyzed in this presentation is inspired by a real-world problem where the construction of a landfill at a rate too fast caused damage to an adjacent bridge. Without presenting actual names, the problem is described and analyzed using an elasto-plastic finite element computer code (HOPDYNE) to illustrate how an advanced numerical procedure can help develop an understanding of the failure mechanism, and reveal the true cause of the failure in a complex problem like this, where loading and consolidation take place simultaneously. The problem involves soil-structure interaction. The geometry is too complex, raising questions concerning the validity of one-dimensional assumptions used in Terzaghi’s one-dimensional consolidation theory. The clayey soil in the foundation is too soft and is certain to behave highly plastically, raising questions about the validity of using elastic theories to calculate the stresses in the foundation caused by the weight of the landfill. In other words, the problem is too complex, pointing to the need for a method like the finite element method for not only verifying the validity of the conventional methods normally used in analyses, but also to explain the true cause of failure.

Pile Driving Equipment

(click on the title above to download)

UFC 3-220-02
16 January 2004

Supercedes and incorporates Technical Instruction TI 818-03, 3 August 1998 (also available)

This document presents guidelines to assist the preparation of specifications for pile installation and for assessment of construction operations. Descriptions of types of piles, advantages, disadvantages, and usage of piles, equipment, and installation methods are discussed in these instructions.

1. Equipment. Proper equipment and installation methods are critical to prevent damage to the pile foundation during driving, to obtain adequate bearing capacity, and to minimize the cost of installation. Guidance is provided for monitoring the installation of piles including equipment operation, prevention of pile damage during installation, construction problems, and effects of driving on adjacent structures.
2. General Guidance. Guidance is provided on selection of equipment, verification of design, construction considerations, and the care and maintenance of piles.
3. Installation Methods. Special installation methods are sometimes required depending on the soil and the environment. Guidance is provided for pile installation assisted by jetting or where hammers or vibrators are not or cannot be used.
4. Case History. A case history study is included as an example of how to proceed with installation of a driven pile foundation.

Note: the webmaster of site was contracted to write about half of this book. The case history is of special interest. Much of the information on pile driving equipment is contained elsewhere on this site.

Static Testing of Deep Foundations
(pdf format)

Federal Highway Administration
FHWA-SA-91-042
February 1992

A majority of the bridges in the United States are supported on deep foundations*. The economical design and construction of a pile foundation depends on the use of rational procedures to determine pile load capacity. Additional, unwarranted costs can result from either inadequate or overly conservative design and from construction claims related to pile driving difficulties.

A static load test is conducted to measure the response of a pile under applied load. Conventional static load test types include axial compressive, axial tensile and lateral load testing. The cost and engineering time associated with a load testing program should be justified by a thorough engineering analysis and foundation investigation. An adequate pile foundation design requires detailed subsurface exploration, appropriate soil testing, subsurface profile development, static pile analyses and selection of optimum pile type(s).

Static load tests provide the best means of determining pile capacity and, if properly designed, implemented and evaluated, should pay for themselves on most projects. Depending on availability of time and on cost considerations, the load testing program may be included either in the design or in the construction phase. Dynamic load tests, performed in conjunction with static load tests, greatly increase the cost-effectiveness of a pile load test program and should be specified whenever piles installed by impact driving are load-tested.

Many different procedures have been proposed for conducting pile load tests. The main differences are in the selection of loading systems, instrumentation requirements, magnitude and duration of load increments, and interpretation of results.

The objective of this manual is to present a comprehensive, easy-to-follow guide describing the steps required in planning, conducting and interpreting the results of static load tests on driven piles and drilled shafts. It is intended to serve as a reference for experienced engineers and as a learning aid for those not experienced in pile load testing. Types of testing covered include axial compressive, axial tensile and lateral load tests. A brief description of dynamic pile load testing is included in the Appendix.

Theoretical Manual for Pile Foundations

Reed L. Mosher and William P. Dawkins

U.S. Army Corps of Engineers Information Technology Laboratory
ERDC/ITL TR-00-5

The purpose of this manual is to provide a detailed discussion of techniques used for the design/analysis of pile foundations. Several of the procedures have been implemented. Theoretical development of these engineering procedures and discussions of the limitations of each method are presented.

The purpose of a pile foundation is to transmit the loads of a superstructure to the underlying soil while preventing excessive structural deformations. The capacity of the pile foundation is dependent on the material and geometry of each individual pile, the pile spacing (pile group effect), the strength and type of the surrounding soil, the method of pile installation, and the direction of applied loading (axial tension or compression, lateral shear and moment, or combinations). Except in unusual conditions, the effects of axial and lateral loads may be treated independently.